The HIV and AIDS problem between educated and non

Overview Uganda has made tremendous improvements in terms of declining the number of people living with HIV/AIDS. This trend is traceable to the early 1990s when the government launched an initiative campaign aimed at eradicating the scourge. According to the survey conducted by UNICEF, the number of children up to the age of 15 years living with HIV/AIDs dropped to a record 1.1 million.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The HIV and AIDS problem between educated and non-educated children in Uganda specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The report by the Ugandan Ministry of Health, to mother-child infection accounted for about 90% of children living with HIV/AIDS. The increase in the HIV/AIDS infection has been challenging in respect of the inability to track their demographics (Dube, Shoko and Hayes 98). HIV/AIDS among educated children in Uganda A survey conducted in Uganda suggests that sex education in Ugandan schools and through the media has prevailed in encouraging teenagers to engage in protected sex or have delayed the age at which they participate in premarital sex. Since the campaign initiative of the early 1990s, a USAID-sponsored scheme to encourage the use of condoms through community and school education has improved condom use from about 7% to a whopping 50% in the Ugandan rural areas while the urban areas have managed over 85%. Increased use of condoms among teenagers aged between 13-19 years saw a reduced the rate of infection by about 60%. Additionally, sex education among children organized to salvage the children have recorded an increased number of children who have never engaged in early sex from 20% to about 65% between 1989 and 2005 (Dube, Shoko and Hayes 128). Although it is arguable that the HIV/AIDS prevalence among children is heavily due to mother-child transmission, studies reveal that the prevalence among them has also been due to unprotected early sex. Generally, the reduced rate of children living with IADS has been mainly because of reduced prevalence among women aged between the ages of 15-24 years. Research suggests that there is a strict correlation between child education and HIV/AIDS prevalence (Dube, Shoko and Hayes 98). In a study conducted in Uganda in the early 1990s, results indicated that young men and women who completed secondary education were seven times less likely to contract the disease than those with little or no education (UNFPA, 2011). Women studies confirm that post-primary education among the girl-child provides the greatest pay-off for their empowerment. Additionally, higher education offers more specific knowledge and life skills required to make informed decisions during their later age. HIV/AIDS among non-educated children in Uganda Researches conducted by numerous scholars have suggested that there exist a positive relationship between education and HIV prevalence among children. Studies show that in the absence o f awareness about HIV/AIDS, individuals tend to have several sex partners, hence increasing their risk of infection. According to Simmons, Fawzi and Bundy (2008), an increased sex education through prevention messages remains a protective element against the infection of HIV/AIDS.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Increasingly, research demonstrates that increased educational campaign among children has been used as a tool in fighting against the pandemic. Reduced education enrollment among children in rural areas has increased the rate of HIV/AIDS infection among children in Uganda (Kalipeni 174). Studies suggest that people with low understanding of the effects of HIV/AIDS are risky compared to children with higher levels of education. According to a study conducted by Jukes, Simmons, Fawzi and Bundy (2008) on Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS (JLICA) found that HIV/I ADS specific education a positive contribution toward reduced prevalence among children in the Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the educational efforts to reduce the HIV/AIDS infection has had a far-reaching impact on the reduced levels of prevalence among Ugandan children, declined campaigns in the rural Uganda accounts for the low improvements in HIV/AIDS prevalence among rural children. These results suggest that children who underwent through education stood a better chance of avoiding unprotected and early sex compared to those who had little or no education (Dube, Shoko and Hayes 98). Gender studies conducted demonstrate that girls with less than 7 years of study exhibited a higher likelihood of getting married before the age of18, and early marriages have a statistical link to high risks of infection (UNFPA, 2011). Schools provide a mechanism of sourcing for information about the prevention of HIV. Recent studies and analysis by Global campaign for Education (GCE) indicate that i f children attained a complete primary education, it can reduce the impact of HIV by about 700, 000 cases among young adults. Works Cited Dube, Lilian, Tabona Shoko, and Stephen Hayes. African Initiatives in Healing Ministry. University of South Africa: UNISA Press. Jukes, Matthew, Stephanie Simmons, Mary Fawzi and Donald Bundy. â€Å"Educational access and HIV prevention: Making the case for education as a health priority in sub-Saharan Africa.† Joint Learning Initiative on Children and HIV/AIDS. (2008): 1-33. Kalipeni, Ezekiel. HIV and AIDS in Africa: beyond epidemiology. New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The HIV and AIDS problem between educated and non-educated children in Uganda specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More UNFPA. Women and HIV/AIDS: Confronting the Crisis. Web. https://www.unfpa.org/publications/women-and-hivaids This essay on The HIV and AIDS problem between educated and non-educated children in Uganda was written and submitted by user Ava Guzman to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Climate and Migration Essays (907 words) - Droughts In Africa

Climate and Migration Essays (907 words) - Droughts In Africa Global Issues Writing Assignment # 2 Climate and Migration Since the Neolithic Revolution, with he shift to food production, societies have become more sedentary, and have depended on natural resources in order to settle communities. For example, communities started to emerge along rivers, lakes, and oceanic costs so that water could be used for crop irrigation, and to get resources, such as fish and salt. Nevertheless, nature is unpredictable, and when there is a climate change, sedentary communities are significantly affected. In West Africa, droughts have displaced people, and caused out-migration, affecting communities in different ways. The Sahel region, in the South of the Sahar desert, and North of the tropical zone, along the equator, is one of the unstable regions in the world, regarding climate change. Geographically, the Sahel region is critically located. Too many factors play a major role in this region, causing degradation of the land. First, there are global scale factors such as the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies (Hagos There are several issues linked to climate change in the Sahel region. According to Africa Renewal magazine, the Sahel region faces many issues, from fragile economy to irregular rainfalls. Due to its location, the region is very susceptible to water shortage, and land degradation, problems often linked to anthropogenic climate change. For instance, this region faced a severe droughts through the 1970s and 1980s what triggered a large decline of the economy (Hagos As shown in the U.N. case study, a young man, who used to live in the Lake Chad region, was significantly affected by drought, and he had to move from the region, and find a new place to live. This basically illustrates how droughts are a major issue for the Sahel region, and how they are closely related to population. Certainly, it is possible to solve the problem that the region is facing. However, the issues are as complicated in local scale as they are in global scale. According to the article Responding to Climate Change, from NASA, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, involves changing the human culture of consumption, by reducing the greenhouse emission. This is in a global scale, but also, this is probably the viable solution for Sahel region weather. In fact, Hagos and Cook reported in their study that the recovery observed in Sahel during the 1990s was due to the change in SST anomalies; A little variation in temperature of the two oceans was the cause of that recovery. This way, this study shows that human will continue to depend upon weather conditions, which decreases the chances of humans changing the current situation in the Sahel region. Nevertheless, the fact that a long-term solution depends mostly upon nature forces does not mean that there is nothing to do regarding the Sahel region. As the U.N. case study showed, the region is poor and it impacts the local capability to cope with environmental issues such as droughts. It is important to understand that the major issue is not that the region is dry, but how people deal with droughts. Thus, it is notable that the main problem is poverty in the region, what limits local people solutions. According to Africa Renewal Magazine, in 2013, the

How does the Technology of Communication Influence the Nature and Essay

How does the Technology of Communication Influence the Nature and Identity of Community - Essay Example The presence of satellite communication has made it possible for the users to communicate in the most remote areas. The vast outbreak of technology has impacted the communities across the world. The effect of technology has been so massive that the behavior and identity of a community can be determined and is influenced by the communication technology in use. Communication and Community: The interdependence of proper communication and community development has been agreed by the modernist of the 19th and the 20th century. German theories suggest that proper communication is effective in community building as communication is helpful in suppressing and ignoring individuality to a large extent. Several theories were in proposition regarding community and communication. It was claimed that communication leads to community as communication is helpful in the creation of mutual recognition and promotes mutual respect among each other. Some liberals have the idea that the communication help s the individuals to express their own ideas and their expression of ideas gives rise to competition and differentiation, which leads to the effective growth of community. The theories suggested by optimists and pessimists vary in respect of community and communication. However similar ideas were shared which included the importance of communication on community and that both are necessary for the overall growth. The pessimist held the idea that mass communication as a false mode of communication and culture. Whereas the optimist believed that the mass communication is highly important in the integration of huge number of people to form communities. They propagated the idea that interpersonal communication and the formation of social organization will not be sufficient enough to have diversified ideas and will not result in creation of a great community. It has been highlighted that the behavior of community is associated with communication. In order to increase the tie in a communi ty it is important to get involved in more participation.1 The technologies of communication in the recent years aim to serve various communities in their own unique ways. The popular modes of communication technology involve the global use of internet and its associated technologies, Satellite television, newspaper, Radio broadcast. The use of technology for communication has been differentiated in the developed and the developing nations. The improvement of information and technology communication has affected the socio economic aspects both in a good and bad manner. The benefit of the ICT network has been significant in providing of essential service to the people. The effect of technology in communication has been significant in strengthening the community and increasing the community capacity. The increased access to communication enhances the ability of a community to communicate with business and other administrative units. The participation of a greater number of people in t he community development program and in their governance also increases. The wide use of the internet helps in the transformation of the social capital and involves a considerable mass to be in contact with each other. The local group base solidarity is eliminated to a large extent by the spatial

Discusiions Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discusiions - Case Study Example Upon voting, a successful bill turns into a House Act and sent to the Senate for further consideration. Similar processes are followed in the Senate by referring the bill to the finance committee for further analysis. Upon agreement of the bill by both houses, it is then passed to the president for approval. Once the law is enacted, the IRS undertakes implementation. The most important phase of the whole process is the enforcement stages as many taxpayers endeavor in tax evasion. For example, excise duty imposed on alcoholic beverages is realized after it is enforced. As such, the Tax and Trade Bureau is responsible for enforcing the tax law; hence, it being of importance in terms of revenue collection by the treasury. In addition, the importance of excise duty on imports is only as effective at its enforcement. At this stage, the reduction of imports makes it evident that the tax law is efficient. The sole purpose of IRS is investigating any loopholes that taxpayers exploit to avoid tax payment. Therefore, in defending my client against tax audit it is necessary to ensure that the client maintains adequate records to ensure the client avoids additional tax, penalties and interest. IRS agents usually check for an error in the supporting documents rather than line-by-line in-depth examination of returns. An example, professional real estate investors have a right to claim write offs and losses while a normal investor has no right. Therefore, if an individual claims to be conversant with such investments but his investments do not fall within the range that is of professional, the IRS agents claim for an additional substantiation of the status. Therefore ensuring that the client has his perspective constant and clear is fundamental in dealing with IRS

BHS 427 - Health Care Finance (Module 4-SLP) Essay

BHS 427 - Health Care Finance (Module 4-SLP) - Essay Example If the husband or wife has paid Medicare taxes when employed, such people are enrolled to Part A without paying monthly premium. If Medicare taxes have not been paid during employment, they can apply for Part A and pay premium which changes year by year. The premium rate for 2009 is as follows: Part B: Medicare medical insurance is taken mainly to avail those services which Part A does not cover and it is optional. It offers the rights like doctors’ services, outpatient care and other medical services. The premium is decided by the individual. Some pay a standard monthly premium of $96.40 and others on the basis of their income. A case if costs more than the â€Å"fixed-loss cost threshold amount (a dollar amount by which the costs of a case must exceed payments in order to qualify for outliers).† (Outlier payments, 2006). Medicare payments to hospitals fall under two categories-prospective payment and physician payment. The prospective payments include costs like operating cost, capital cost and outlier cost. Operating cost is paid if the patient has to stay long in the hospital. Capital cost includes cost for treatment and care to the patient. If a patient uses extraordinary resources then outlier cost is charged which is an additional payment. Physician payment is calculated on the basis of current procedural terminology (CPT) codes. The payment rate depends upon the Work RVU, Practise expense RVU and Malpractice RVU which may vary by region. What are the Medicare premiums and coinsurance rate for 2009?: Answer: For each benefit period you pay. (2008). U S Department of health & human services. Retrieved June 5, 2009, from

The Role of Inflation and Change in Consumer Buying Power

The Role of Inflation and Change in Consumer Buying Power 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Our cram will be paying attention at the diverse aspects of inflation in Pakistan from a local and large-scale point of view. Pakistan has undergone a most important economic growth all the way through previous few years. But the core evils of the economy are at rest unsettled; Inflation remains the most important of all these evils. In the case of an Asian country, Pakistan inflation is the end result of monetary phenomena. The excess money supply increase in Pakistan has in essence improved inflation. Inflation is a get higher in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level grows; each unit of currency buys less goods or services. Inflation doesnt on its own pressure the macroeconomic indicators; it influences the living standards of the nation. As the percentage of inflation enhance, the cost of all commodities also enhance. It can also be described as a turn down in the real value of money—a thrashing o f purchasing power. The level of inflation in Pakistan has been bit by bit getting higher since partition. The high levels of inflation imitate an unstable economy in which money does not hold its value for long. Workers have need of higher remuneration to cover up getting higher costs, and are disinclined to save. Manufacturer in turn may move up their selling prices to cover up these increases, scale back production to check their costs (resulting in lay-offs), or be unsuccessful to invest in future production. Many such problems have been, and still are, being faced by Pakistan. The issues leading to high levels of inflation include deficit financing, foreign remittances, foreign economic support, increase in wages, population explosion, black money, prices of imported goods, devaluation of rupee, etc. 1.2 Purpose of Study: The main purpose of this study is to be familiar with and learn about global real meaning of role of inflation and its impact on Pakistan economy and more paying attention towards inflation affect on different sector. In this study, we studied about the factors causing inflation. It will be of great help out to students of economics and business studies. The study provides as much as necessary learning opportunities that one for all time looks for and such opportunities turn very healthy in terms with understanding the subject which is under study. 1.3 Research Objectives Present the set-up of inflation in Pakistan. Underline the figures of recent years. Impact of inflation on our society. Cram the procedures that have been taken by government to supervise inflation. Evaluate policies of the State Bank of Pakistan and the tools it is using to supervise inflation. Give recommendations to control inflation. 1.4 Research Methodology: In this research, we contain data from primary and secondary sources. Data used in this study are obtained from KSE 100, State bank of Pakistan, federal bureau of statistic; stock price index etc†¦The information required for our research consists of details about recent and past policies of State Bank of Pakistan. Research instruments for this study included, interviews from economists, columnists and other relevant people. The sources of information or data on the Inflation collected all the way through variety of ways in different setting. It also contains very well points about other variables affecting inflation. For this, we aim to gather secondary data, all the way through websites, economic surveys and the journals. However, if required, we can also make use of primary data in the forms of interviews and surveys. Analysis of data would be done by with awareness studying the collected data. A to the point explanation of the format of the results will be presented in the f ollowing forms, e.g. Pie charts Line graphs Tables Study Period/Division of Time for Project The possible limitations in our research would be; Time constraint Knowledge constraint Data constraint CHAPTER # 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW Inflation means get higher of general level of price of goods and services in the economy over the period of time. Inflation occurs when the demand of goods will be getting higher as compare to the supply of that good. If the supply is not equilibrium (or less) to the demand of goods and services so the prices will be high. Inflation will also occur when the cost of production will rice or increase price on raw material so the manufacturer increase the finished good prices. Inflation impact negative effect on economy for the reason that it decrease the real value of money. Consumer buying power means how the people spend money on goods and services or purchase the product on a specific availability of money or wages. There are two factors that affect the consumer buying power. (1).Every person wants to spend money for his basic needs or for his luxuries and entertainment for example: (food, house, car, clothing, entertainment etc.). But the buying power will change every year for the reason that of inflation. It will be happened for the reason that of the product price will increase every year or you can say that decrease the value of money. (2).Consumer buying power will also be change for the reason that of monthly wages. If monthly wages is increase or the product or commodities price is same then consumer go for in addition activity but if the wages is not increase only increase the product or commodities price so the effect is occur on consumer buying power. They are only going for basic needs not for the luxuries etc. ALEEM, KALIM (2007) Inflation is get higher in Pakistan for the reason that of mismanagement and loose control on monetary policy and fiscal policy. In monetary policy state bank will issue the supply of money or if supply of money is not manage by state bank efficiently so its affect on inflation or in fiscal policy government apply the taxes on private sector. In 2005-06 inflation will be get higher and fall for the reason that of loose monetary policy. Now in Pakistan recent government apply expansionary policy. In this policy government will increase the interest rate to control the inflation or consumer buying power. Getting higher oil prices in the market will also increase the price on food items or commodities. Inflation in Pakistan wills also occur for the reason that of sharp increase in net import. The gab between in domestic demand and domestic production is filled import items. Comparison between import and export in Pakistan there is no balance of trade or balance of payment. Getting higher trade deficit can be a cause of expectation of high inflation. ABDUL (2007)this author tells us that monetary policy are playing very important role for increasing inflation or how to control inflation. Monetary policy successfully controls inflation when it successfully controls money supply in the market. Monetary policy calculates the money supply with the help of M2 (cash and checking account deposit + saving deposit and money market accounts). But state bank of Pakistan is failed to have power over money supply last few years that why inflation is get higher in Pakistan. But now in Pakistan state bank will increase the interest rate to have power over the inflation in Pakistan. Increasing the amount in interest rate will affect demand for credit to the business sector and also affect the money market rate. Increasing the amount in interest rate also affect the demand on commodities. FAROOQ (2008)this author tells us that political instability is effect the inflation. Monetary policy will be effect for the reason that of political instability. If the political sector is stable in Pakistan so inflation will may be have power over for the reason that state bank will do supply of money in the market by the manage way. Political instability is a negative effect for the economy for the reason that of variable GDP growth, private investment and inflation. Political stability is very important for the economic development of a country. Political stability discourages speculation and hoarding and encourages investment. If there is an unexpected twist in the political situation of a country become entrepreneurs reluctant to invest. Just as foreign investors do not invest, at the same time as industrialists and businessmen feel uncertain and can not make good plans. Due to the scarcity of goods and services are produced and cause inflation MOHSIN (2006) After forecast that is why inflation is go up in Pakistan we check up that for the reason that of variable monetary policy means variable money supply in the market or given high credit to private sector not only this also charge the variable interest rates. Every time state bank (central bank) was not made a good monetary policy as well as they didnt manage the supply of money in the market. When ever the state bank drop off the interest rate so private sector will borrow the loan from the bank or in this case private sector credit will be increase or supply of money will also increase in cooperation growths are good leading indicators of inflation. Inflation will be control by using these four ways which are under below. Get higher in the interest rates is a very useful tool for restricting monetary inflation. Increase in the real rates of interest decreases the demand for loans, thereby limiting the growth of broad money. There may also be a fall in the commercial investments, due to a get higher in the costs of borrowing money. This exerts a direct influence on a handful of planned investment-related projects, which turn out to be unprofitable. This leads to a fall in the collective demand. An increase in the payment of mortgage interests automatically decreases the real effective disposable income of the house owners, as well as their spending capacities. Escalation in the mortgage costs also decreases the demand generated in the housing markets. ABDUL QAYYUM (2006) this author tells us the relation between excess money supply growth and inflation. Excess money supply will be happened for the reason that of loose monetary policy which is making by the government or state bank of Pakistan. Money supply growth will effect on the inflation. First supply growth will affect on gross domestic product (GDP). It will happened for the reason that when the consumer buying power will increase so demand will also increase or if supply is less than with demand so prices of commodities will be get higher and fall. So government or state bank makes the affective monetary policy then the inflation will be under have power over. Growth of population is also increase the inflation in the country for the reason that of increase in demand of goods and services or if demand of goods is greater than the supply as a result the prices will be increase in the GDP commodities. Due to the imbalance between supply and demand of goods and services, prices start to get higher and triggering inflation. JIAN ZHANGThe consumer buying power will depends upon the prices of goods and services. If the prices of goods and services are not high so consumer purchasing power will increase. Buying power will also depend on supply of money means (monetary policy). If supply of money in the country is high so consumer buying power will also increase. Buying power will also depends on wages. If the consumer wages is not increase only increase the price on commodities so buying power will be get higher and fall or decrease. If the wages is increase or commodities price is not increase so the buying power will be increase. Recently china will increase consumer buying power for the reason that of giving goods or services in very low prices. CHAPTER # 3 INFLATION 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types of Inflation 3.3Inflation in Pakistan 3.4Impact of Inflation in Pakistan 3. INFLATION 3.1 Introduction Inflation is a get higher in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level get higher; each unit of currency acquires less goods or services. as a result; inflation also reflects abrasion in the purchasing power of money. An increase in the supply of money relative to the availability of goods and services, resulting in higher prices and decrease in the purchasing power. There are many definitions of inflation. By inflation most people be aware of a sustained and substantial get higher in prices. For example: W.A.L COULBORN words: â€Å"too much money chasing too few goods†. Prof SAMUELSON, â€Å"Inflation occurs when the general level of prices and costs is getting higher†. According to ROWAN, â€Å"inflation is the course of action of price increase† HARRY G JOHNSON, â€Å"We define inflation as substantial increase in prices†. According to CROWTHER, â€Å"inflation as a state in which the value of money is falling†. According to MEYER, â€Å"An increase in the price that occurs after full employment has been attained†. According to KEYNES, â€Å"The get higher in general price level after full employment had been achieved is called inflation†. 3.2 Types of Inflation Following are the types of inflation: Creeping inflation. Walking inflation or Mild inflation. Running inflation. Galloping or Hyper inflation. Demands pull inflation. Costs push inflation. Mixed inflation or Wage spiral inflation. Open inflation. Suppresses inflation. Profit induced inflation. Budgetary inflation or Deficit inflation. Monetary inflation. Income inflation. Production inflation. Devolution inflation. Imported inflation. Ceiling inflation. 3.2.1 Creeping InflationIt is a situation where the increase in the price level is very slow. In creeping inflation the get higher in price level is up to 2 % p.a. 3.2.2 Walking Inflation or Mild InflationWhen the rate of inflation is reasonable, not too high not too low. The get higher in price level is about 5 % p.a. This type of inflation has healthy effect on economy. 3.2.3 Running InflationIn this type of inflation, the general price level increase more sharply than the previous type. The get higher in price is about 8 to 10% p.a. 3.2.4 Galloping or Hyper Inflation When prices are getting higher at abnormal high rate, it is called hyper inflation. This type of inflation was experienced in Germany after Second World War. The price level increase many hundreds time and the purchasing power of people fell to very low level. This type of inflation is very dangerous. 3.2.5 Demand Pull InflationWhen inflation is due to excess of demand over aggregate supply, it is called demand pull inflation. Excess of aggregate demand pulls the price upwards. Aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply due to following reasons: Population explosion. Increase in exports. Structural backwardness. Increase in supply of money. Increase in income of people. Mass migration. Wars. 3.2.6 Cost Push InflationIt means a condition where prices are growing due to move up in the cost of production even if there is no increase in aggregate demand. Increase in costs pushes the price in the air. Cost push inflation occurs due to following reasons: Increase in wages. Increase the price of raw material. New taxes. Devaluation. Increase in energy prices. 3.2.7 Mixed Inflation or Wage Spiral InflationIt is the mixtures of demand pull and cost inflation. Originally prices get higher due to excessive increase in aggregate demand. Increase in raises the cost of living of the workers. In order to pay compensation high cost of living, worker demand for high wage rates. Demands for high wage rate are accepted during the period of getting higher prices. Increase in wages will move up the cost of production. For that reason increase in wages will push the price upward. Combined effect of wages and prices creates hyper inflation. 3.2.8 Open InflationIt is a situation when the inflation gets out of control and cannot be controlled by government price control policy is called open inflation. 3.2.9 Suppressed InflationIt is the situation when the inflation can be controlled by the government price control policy. 3.2.10 Profit Induced InflationWhen businessmen tend to increase their profit and increase the price of their commodities then their will be profit induced inflation. It is usually occurs in such economy which are dominated by monopolies. Monopolist is in the position to increase the price of his product at his will. 3.2.11 Budgetary Inflation or Deficit InflationWhen the revenue of the government is less than its expenditures, it is said to run budgetary deficit. To overcome this deficit govt. makes borrowing from internal and external source to increase the supply of money. Higher supply induced more consumption causing price level to high. 3.2.12 Monetary InflationWhen there is an spreading out in the currency notes in circulation then there will be monetary inflation. 3.2.13 IncomeInflationThe inflation which occurs from high income level is called income inflation. In consumption oriented society where propensity to consume is higher than propensity to save such higher income will bring on people to use up lavishly on consumer goods. 3.2.14 Production InflationThis inflation aget highers due to be short of of capital projects. If the course of action of industry is slow as compared to rare of growth of population, then soon the economy would be not capable to meet up all the needs of its members. Shortage of goods creates higher demand which forces the price to up. 3.2.15 Devaluation InflationDevaluation makes our currency not expensive in terms of foreign currency. It also makes all those goods cheap whose prices are in rupees. Further the exports of the country increases. Such increase in exports increases the profit and income of local exporters. It leads to inflation. 3.2.16 Imported InflationIt means the inflation that aget highers due to increase in the price of demand goods. Suppliers in foreign countries may increase the prices of their products. This will affect the domestic consumers and producers. They will be compelled to increase the price of goods. It will create inflation. 3.2.17 Ceiling Inflation that occurs due to a variety of ceiling prices of government. Ceiling prices are set by the government to maintain prices of essential goods. Price is seized below the equilibrium to maintain prices of essential goods. Prices are seized lower than the equilibrium price level of free market. However, the price ceiling from time to time invites black marketing. It may cause inflation. 3.3 INFLATON IN PAKISTAN Inflation during 2005-06 Inflation picked up to an average of 8.6% per annum for the duration of the last two years (2004-05 and 2005-06) for a variety of reasons. First and foremost was the extraordinary increase in international price of oil which more than doubled for the duration of the last years; reaching an all time high of $78/bbl. The increase in international oil prices, as a result contributed to the pick up in inflation during the last years. Next issue has been the surge in demand; which put force on prices. Four years of well-built economic growth (on average, 7.0% per annum) gave increase to the income levels of different segments of the society; which supported domestic demand and put getting higher pressure on prices of necessary commodities. The government had taken numerous actions to bring inflation downward during 2005-06. These actions included the tightening of monetary policy as well as enhancing the supply of necessary commodities through liberalizing of import command. As a result the on the whole inflation registered a turn down from 9.3% in 2004-05 to 7.9 in 2005-06. The majority importantly; food inflation declined from 12.4 to 6.9 during the same period. Non-food inflation on the other hand registered an increase from 7.1 to 8.6%. In 2006, the development in non-government sector borrowing was 23%. This development is reflected in the role of NGSB in inflation; which was 35% in 2005-2006. One significant issue is import prices; which explains 26.7% of the inflation in 2005-2006. The government levies did not cause any most important get higher in prices in 2005-2006. There was no additional strong force on import costs, for the reason that of a constant exchange rate, such policy cannot be continued for long at the same time as trade shortfall set the way. Inflation during 2006-07 In year 2006, core inflation from 7.1% in June 2006 came down to 5.5% in December 2006; due to the tighter monetary position. The CPI-based inflation during July-April 2006-2007 averaged 7.9% as against 8% in the same period last year. The single biggest element of the CPI is the food group; which showed an increase of 10.2%. This was higher than the 7% food inflation observed over the corresponding period of last year. According to the State Bank of Pakistan, the food inflation during the period increased for the reason that of supply side constraints. On the other hand, the non-food prices grew at a slower pace compared to last year. The non-food inflation averaged 6.2% between Julys-April 2006-07 while it stood at 8.8% in the corresponding period of last year. The non-food non-energy inflation (core inflation) decelerated sharply to 6% in first ten months of the fiscal year as against 7.7% in the same period last. The tight monetary policy pursued by the SBP has resulted in the sharp reduction in the core inflation. A more detailed analysis of the food group shows a considerable variation in inflation rates of the items included in the group. For example, considering the perishable and non-perishable items in the food group separately shows that nonperishable food prices rose by 9.0% while the perishable items prices grew by 17.6%. The estimated contributions to inflation for perishable and non-perishable items are 11.5% and 40% respectively when their weights are 5.14% and 35.2% respectively. Clearly, the contribution of perishable items to inflation is nearly twice its weight. An analysis of individual food items suggests that the major portion of food inflation during the current year stemmed from a limited number of items including rice, edible oil, pulses, meat, milk, tea, eggs, wheat, vegetables and fruits. These items have experienced relatively larger increase in their prices during th e course of 2006-2007. However, prices of other important food items like sugar, potatoes, tomatoes, Moong pulse and chicken (farm) have shown a decline in their prices owing to improved availability of these items in the market. Inflation during 2007-08 Pakistans inflation in 2007 remained virtually unaffected from the 2006 rate, standing at 7.8%. The inflationary trend in food prices persisted through most of the fiscal year and was even higher, at 10.3% in 2007, affecting people living on low and fixed incomes. The analysis suggests that the inflation was for the most part food price driven. Prices of a variety of types of pulses have increased this year for the reason that of the short supply of these pulses in the country. In view of the fact that milk powder and tea are also importable items, the domestic prices were higher on the back of higher international prices. The inflation in 2007 was fuelled by worldwide increases in a variety of goods prices, higher utility tariffs and by local supply- and demand-driven issues. To include food inflation; Pakistans government extended the public-sector utility-store network, extending it even into rural areas. All the way through the network the government provides large subsidies for the sale of necessary edibles. The central bank reacted to high inflation by tightening monetary policy; it concurrently raised the discount rate; the cash necessity on demand deposits and the statutory liquidity requirement of demand and time deposits. In view of the other CPI groups; the maximum inflation was in the Medicare group and energy with reported 10 month inflation of 9.1% and 7.3% respectively. But in view of the fact that their weights are small in the CPI basket (2.1% and 8.7%) their contribution to inflation was small. On the other hand; house rent which has a 23.4% weight in the CPI; showed a go down in infl ation from 10.3% to 6.7%. Inflation during 2008-09 A delay in including more areas and in revising consumption patterns for measurement of inflation has helped the government to cover up real inflationary pressures in the economy, claimed Dawn. Earlier than the start of the year; the government had finished the family budget survey; launched in July 2007 for the purpose of revising the base for measurement of inflation. The exercise was delayed for years on the pretext of non-availability of funds. A senior official at FBS said that the excuse of non-availability of funds for conducting survey to revise the base year of CPI was unjust for the reason that the government had started a number of other surveys and projects, reported Dawn. Analysts say the government wanted to carry on with the previous model for the reason that it was based on a survey of urban areas only; ignoring rural consumers who compget higherd 70% of the whole population. In addition; a lot of objects covered by the survey are either obsolete or their consumption has declined drastically with the passage of time. The present average rate of inflation is around 25% and if the base year is revised it will go up to over 30%. This remarkably high trend is primarily a reason of high food inflation. Inflation for the duration of 2008 point out that prices of a few (18) necessary food items registered quick increase mainly for the duration of the second half of the fiscal year 2008. Other major contributors to 2008s getting higher inflationary trend included house rent, which is the index that measures the cost of production in Pakistan, racing to 11.35% by April 2008. Inflation during 2009-2010 According to the Inflation Outlook covering the period of January-June 2009, the inflation is expected to be in the range of 21.3 percent in the current month of January 2009 as against 11.9% in January 2008. According to a Projection, presented Economic condition committee of the Cabinet meeting held on January 13, 2009 inflation was calculated at 24.3 percent at the start of July in 2007. According the reserve, the reason of Inflation is the continuation of year 2010. The Survey discovered that public was expecting that Inflation would increase in future. It showed that demand-pull, cost push, structural issues were responsible for current inflation in Pakistan and the government policies were not useful to enhance growth. In progress reason of inflation consist of demand, pull, cost push, structure inflation. The survey discovered that cost-push issue was much responsible for causing inflation. The contribution of cost push inflation was 29.1% followed by demand-pull factor (14%), structure issues 13.5%. Collectively; all the three issues were contributing about 56.1% to in progress inflation. Inflation during 2010-2011 According to the assessments of analysts and researches; food inflation is the most important reason behind the speedy inflation. The CPI inflation turned out higher than expectations as it rose by 13.23% on yearly basis (2.51% on monthly basis) during the month of August 2010. Food inflation, for the duration of August 2010 increased by 15.62% on yearly basis (5.10% on monthly basis). As well, food inflationary impact contributed as much as 91% of the total monthly basis CPI inflation. Items that exceeded expectations included perishables such as vegetables as well as ghee. This reinforces that existing inflationary pressure is due to food inflation. The same provides support to the argument that an upward revision in discount rate should not aged higher out of inflationary concerns. The government borrowings have also stayed within handy bound so far, although it runs the risk of getting higher upon fiscal concerns (deficit of 6.5% for FY11 is already projected).This only shows to be the single most major issue in driving the interest rate direction for FY11.CPI inflation has clocked in at 13.23% on yearly basis in August 2010; slightly high than the forecast of 12.85% yearly and against 12.34% yearly in July 2010. With a joint weight of 55% in the CPI basket, food, energy, transport inflation rose by 15.62%, 21.29% and 14.27%, respectively on yearly basis.The State Bank of Pakistan has recently followed a policy of headline inflation targeting. In this regard; higher than projected CPI in August 2010 and likely up tick above 15% on yearly basis in Sep 2010 may guide to an upward force on the discount rate going ahead; mainly if the SBP maintains its anticipatory position and sidelines down trending core inflation. Table: Annual Rate of Inflation (Percentage) in Pakistan for Period 2004-2011 Graph: Annual rate of Inflation in Pakistan for Period 2004 to 2011 3.4 Impact of I

A More Responsible Approach to Animal Research, Testing, and Experiment

It’s Time for a More Responsible Approach to Animal Research, Testing, and Experimentation The debate about using animals for medical testing has been raging for years. The struggle always seems to be between extremist animal rights activists who believe that animals should never be used for research, and scientists who believe that any use of animals is acceptable. There are a growing number who argue that there must be a reasonable middle ground. I contend that there must be a significant decrease in the number of animals used by humans to further human goals. I will give a historical account of animal use, provide some statistics about animal use, present some arguments against the use of animals and present Singer's view as well as my own. To conclude I will present a new idea that has become important to the animal protection movement, paving the way for more moderate discussion concerning animal welfare. Animals were used for the study of the life sciences in ancient Greece. To learn about body functions scientists would cut into a live animal to observe the processes that were occurring. Animals have been used for centuries to help researchers understand the various organs of the body and their functions as well as to hone their surgical skills (jhsph). In the 19th century there was a rise in biomedical research and a subsequent rise in the number of animals used in experiments. Then came the birth of the animal rights movement in a large scale. Bentham's question of whether or not animals can suffer became the rallying cry of the animal protection movement at the time. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Great Britain and in the United States was created in the 19th century... ...you can have longer, fuller looking lashes. Then consider the alternatives. Lists of companies that use animals for testing are published on the web. Ask questions about what is happening in the basement of this very building. I'm not advocating the complete abolishment of testing but rather, a responsible outlook on the types of testing done and the alternatives. WORKS CITED * "Alternatives to Animal Testing on the Web." http://altweb.jhsph.edu/  Ã‚  Ã‚   * Burne, Jerome. "Animal Testing is a disaster." The Guardian. 24 May 2001. http://www.guardian.co.uk/ * "Questions and Answers about the Animal Welfare Act and its Regulations for Biomedical Research Institutions." USDA. http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislat/regsqa.htm * "Research Animal Use - Types Numbers and Percentages." The Humane Society of the United States. http://www.hsus.org/